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UlBRARY OF CONGRESS.! 

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f 1 SMITHSONIAN DEPOSIT.] f 

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•! UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.!! 



IS HIGHER FARMING A REMEDY FOR 
LOWER PRICES? 



BEIXG THE SUBSTANCE OF A LECTURE DELIVERED BEFORE 

THE EAST BERWICKSHIRE AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATION, 

ON SA TURD A V, MA V j, iSjg. 



BY 



JOHN BEXNET LA WES, LL.D., F.R.S, &c. 



OF JIOTHAMSTED, HEUTS. 



JUL 9 1879 



BERWICK-UPON-TWEED : 

rUBLISHED BY G. MACASlvlE, "WARDER" OFFICE, 
1870. 



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IS HIGHER FARMING A REMEDY FOR 
LOWER PRICES? 



There can be no doubt in the minds of all present that 
I'ritish Agriculture is passing through a crisis of unusual 
sev^erity. The complaints which farmers are accused of mak- 
ing, even in the best of times, spring from very different 
causes from those which we now hear of around us. Bad 
seasons, following each other in close succession, in a manner 
quite unusual even in the uncertain climate of these islands, 
have seriously reduced the produce of the land. Immense 
importations of corn have deprived the farmer of the higher 
prices which would otherwise have compensated him for his 
diminished crops. He pays a higher price for labour, fre- 
quently without any corresponding increase in its efficiency. 
Lastly, diseases among stock, the dread of future disease from 
imported animals, and the influence of importations of live 
stock and dead meat upon prices, present and prospective, 
have greatly increased his difficulties. For the moment his 
energies are paralysed, and he is led to inquire what he is to 
do next ? 

It need hardly be said that, under these circumstances, 
advice is not wanting. In fact, it is so abundantly offered, 
and is of such various kinds, that you must have some diffi- 
culty in selecting that which is most applicable to your own 
case. You are told to farm more scientifically, to meet lower 
prices by increased production, or to put a stop to music in 
■ your family circle ! These are specimens of the numerous 
remedies proposed to enable you to meet the difficulties which 
at present surround you, and still to carry on your farming 
operations with a profit. 



4 IS HIGHER FARMING A REMI:DY FOR LOWER PRICES ? 

It will doubtless be some comfort to you, if I say at the 
commencement of my address, that I do not propose to add 
myself to the list of your advisers. I possess no specifii^ 
against the combined effects of bad seasons, cheap corn, dear 
labour, and cheapening meat. You will gather from the title 
of my paper that my object is rather to assist you in examin- 
ing into the applicability of one of the pieces of advice fre- 
(juently offered to you; namely, that you should meet lower 
prices by increased production. 

No one will deny that a great deal of the land of the 
country is badly farmed, or that it would be more profitable 
to raise more produce upon it. To what extent sucli is the 
case in Berwickshire I am unable to say. A reference to the 
Agricultural Statistics will, however, give us some idea of the 
general character of the cultivation of the county. I find 
that, in 1878, it comprised 193,622 acres of arable and pasture 
land, exclusive of heath or mountain land, and that this area 
was under different crops, as follows : — 

Per Cent. 
Grain and pulse crops, ...... 33 

Green crops (excliuling clover and grass), . .18 

Permanent grass, clover, &c. , in rotation, for liay, . 5| 
Do. Do. Do. not for liay, . 4oh 

100 

Tlius, scarcely one-third is devoted to the growth of corn 
crops ; and even if all the corn and potatoes grown, and all 
the hay made, were sold off the farm, the produce of scarcely 
40 acres in every 100 would be sold, leaving 60 for consump- 
tion by stock for the production of meat and manure, the 
latter to be retained on the land. But we know how wide of 
the truth it is to assume that all the hay and oats grown are 
sold; and we have at the same time to bear in mind, that the 
straw grown on the oo per cent, of laud which is devoted to 
corn, will for the most part be retained on the farm. If, in 
addition to these facts, we were to take into account the 
cattle foods and manures purchased and brought on to the 
land, I think we should have abundant evidence that Ber- 
wickshire is, upon the whole, a highly farmed county ; and 
if a certain proportion is badly farmed, we may conclude that 
the remainder is iu a high state of cultivation. 



IS HIGHER FARMING A REMEDY FOR LOWER PRICES ? O 

It is to those in this county who do already farm highly 
that my remarks are chiefly applicable ; but they will apply 
also to high farming generally, wherever it may be practised. 
No one, I suppose, can doubt that the soils of this country 
are capable of producing very much more wheat and meat 
than they do at present, if not, indeed, all that is required to 
support the population. If imports of these articles were pro- 
hibited, or a heavy duty imposed upon them, there is no 
doubt that a much higher system of farming would be profit- 
able than at present prevails. In such a case, however, our 
dependence on the produce of foreign soils would not be 
lessened. The increased production of wdieat and meat here 
supposed could only be attained by increased imports of 
cattle foods and manures. The countries which now supply 
us with wheat and meat would supply instead such products 
as they were permitted to sell to us. Our dependence on the 
foreigner would therefore be equally great ; the only differ- 
ence would be that it would be for other commodities than at 
present. 

Our subject is not, however, what should be done if wheat 
and meat were to advance in price ; but whether a higher 
standard of farming can be recommended to compensate for a 
reduction in price. To put the matter plainly: — supposing 
there were a permanent reduction in the price of the saleable 
produce of the farm to the extent of 20 per cent., would the 
proper remedy be to increase our produce per acre by one- 
fourth, and so to bring up the saleable value to the same; 
amount as before ? 

There can be but little difference of opinion as to what i!5 
to be understood by the term " high farming." It is certainly 
not high farming that produces the wheat which is now sell- 
ing at so low a price in our markets. When we read in the 
United States papers that in one year 20,000,000 acres of 
land had been purchased for cultivation, and that within ten 
years 10,000,000 acres had been added to the area under 
wheat alone, it will be at once understood that it is what is 
called extensive as distinguished from intensive, or high farm- 
ing, that has yielded the supplies we receive. Nor can there 
be any doubt as to one main cause at least, of the present 
depression. Farming on the four-course system, consuming 



*) IS IIIGHRr; FARMING A REMEDY FOR LOWER PRICES ? 

each alternate crop on the farm, and, in addition to this, 
converting all the straw of the corn crops into manure, but 
M'ithout the use of purchased foods or manures, would not 
constitute high farming. 

High farming is a very different process. It implies the 
importation of material from without. All soils are capable 
of yielding more or less annually from their own substance to 
the produce which grows upon them. But, the greater the 
amount of cattle-food and manure purchased and brought 
upon the land — that is, the higher the farming — the less will 
the soil itself contribute to the crops. Indeed, in many cases, 
it contributes nothing at all, but l)ecomes richer by the pro- 
cess. Under such circumstances, the soil may be said to 
serve mainly as a reservoir for the manures applied, and for 
the necessary moisture, and to afibrd support to the growing 
plants ; so that, with the aid of the sun's rays, they may be 
enabled to accumulate carbon (and other constituents) from 
the atmosphere. They thus, so to speak, manufacture raw 
material supplied from external sources. Under such condi- 
tions agriculture is a manufacture depending on the products 
of other soils, and on the atmos^^here, for its raw material, 
just as much as do the manufactures of wool, cotton, and silk 
depend on external sources for their material. 

Adopting the foregoing description of high farming, we 
liave next to inquire whether those who already practise it 
should carry it out still furtlier, as a means of compensation 
for a lower standard of prices of corn and meat ? 

F>efore any answer can be given to this question, it will be 
necessary carefully to consider what are the vnrious sources, 
the effects, and the cost of manures. 

Many of the charges connected witji farming are much the 
same whatever may be the value of tlie crops grown. Of 
course, harvesting a large crop of corn costs something more 
for labour than harvesting a small one, and the expenses on a 
heavy crop of roots will also be somewhat more than on a 
light one. Still, it may be said that, with the exception of 
the extra cost of the manure required to grow the larger cro]), 
the charges remain very mucli tlie same wliether the amount, 
and the value, of the j^roduce be great or small. If, therefore, 
the increase in the produce bore a constant proportion to the 



IS HIGHER FAEMING A EEMEDY FOR LOAVER PRICES f 7 

increase in the amount, and consequently the cost, of tlie 
manure applied — if, in fact, the application of two or three 
times as much manure yielded twice or thrice as much in- 
crease of crop — then higher farming would he a remedy for 
lower prices. But such is not the case. It may, it is true, 
be said that, as the produce increases, the proportion of the 
fixed expenses to be charged upon a given amount of it 
diminishes, thus tending to compensate for the less produc- 
tiveness of a given amount of manure the greater the quantity 
of it applied. But a very little consideration of the facts I 
propose to bring before you would show that, with increased 
production beyond a certain limit, the cost of the manure for 
a given amount of increase increases very much more rapidly 
than the proportion of the fixed expenses diminishes. 

Nowhere are the extremes of farming better illustrated, and 
nowhere can they be better studied, than in the results of the 
field experiments at Rothamsted. Nowhere else are various 
crops grown for a great many years in succession, in some 
cases without any manure at all, so as to tax the capability of 
the soil itself to the utmost, and in others with very liberal 
supplies, either of farmyard manure or of artificial manures, 
so as to enrich it as much as possible. So liberal, indeed, 
has been the application of farmyard manure in some of the 
experiments, that a critic, who apparently did not quite under- 
stand their object, was reported in the North British Agricul- 
turist to have said that we seemed to have a spite against 
farmyard manure, as he considered that much smaller appli- 
cations would have produced as much effect. 

I propose now to call your attention to some of the field 
experiments in question, the results of which will prove that, 
beyond a certain limit, the increase of crop is not in propor- 
tion to the increase in the amount of manure applied. In 
other words, that the higher you farm beyond a certain limit, 
the less is the amount of increase you obtain for a given 
amount of manure, and, therefore, the greater the cost of that 
increase. If this be the case, it is obvious that the cost of 
manure is a very important subject for consideration. 

It is frequently assumed that the manure made by feeding 
stock costs nothing; that by skilful and judicious manage- 
ment, the cost of the food, and the other expenses, will be 



8 IS ITKIIIER FARMING A REMEDY FOR LOWER PRICES ? 

covered by the value of the meat produced and sold ; and 
that, this being so, tlie manure is obtained gratis. I shall, 
therefore, occupy a portion of the time at my disposal in illus- 
tration of the fact that the food of an animal will, as a rule, 
cost more than the meat produced will sell for; and that, con- 
sequently, the cost of the food, and the other necessary expenses, 
CTU only be recovered by charging a portion to the manure. 

To commence with the field experiments. I shall first call 
your attention to some of the results of some experiments on 
an ordinary rotation of crops, which are now in the thirty- 
second year of their progress. The arrangement of them is 
in reality very simple ; though, from their number, it will 
r(^(|uire a little attention fully to comprehend the plan. 

Experiments on Fiotafiov. 

The ordinary four-course rotation of tui'nips, barley, clover 
nr beans, and wheat, has been adopted ; and the eighth crop 
of wheat, that is to say, the last crop of the eighth course, 
is now growing. In the first course, a large crop of clover, 
which was mown three times, was obtained. In the second 
and third courses, red clover was again sown, but it failed 
each time, and beans were then put in instead. Beans were 
also grown in the fourth, fifth, sixth, and eighth courses ; 
l>ut in the seventh, red clover was again tried, and it grew 
siccessfully, again yielding three cuttings. We have had, 
therefore, eight crops of roots, eight of barley, six of beans, 
two of red clover, and seven of wheat ; the eighth of this last 
crop being now growing. 

Such being the course of cro])ping, I will now explain the 
system adopted as to manure. 

One-third of the land has been kept entirely without manure 
throughout the whole period of the experiments. 

One-third has received mineral superphosphate of lime 
al<»ne, every fourth year, that is for the root crops. 

The other third has received, also every fourth year only, 
that is for the roots commencing each course, a very liberal 
aititicial mixture, composed as follows : ^ — 

^ For the first course, only 1000 Ib.s. rape cake instead of 2000 lbs., as always 
afrerwaiils, were ajjplied. In the first and second courses less superphosphate, 
and in the tirst course less potass, and no soda or magnesia, was used. 



IS HIGHER FARMING A REMEDY FOR LOWER TRICES ? 9 





Per Acre. 


Rape cake, .... 


2000 lbs. 


Sulphate ammonia, . 


100 lbs. 


Muriate ammonia. 


100 lbs. 


Sulphate of potass, 


300 lbs. 


Sulphate of soda, 


200 lbs. 


Sulphate of magnesia, 


100 lbs. 


Superphosphate of lime, . 


350 lbs. 



This mixture I shall speak of as the Complex Manure. 

Next as to the treatment of the crops : — 

Each of the three portions, so differently treated as to 
manure, has been divided into two experiments. From one 
half, the whole of the produce, roots and tops, corn and straw, 
and clover, has been removed. On the other half of each, the 
only difference has been, that the roots were fed on the land 
by sheep having no other food, and the tops were also left on 
the land. 

We have, therefore, three experiments in which the whole 
of the produce has been carried away for thirty-one years in 
succession ; on one without any manure having been applied ; 
on another with mineral superphosphate of lime alone, applied 
to the roots, that is every fourth year ; and on the third with 
a very heavy artificial manuring, also for the roots only. We 
have also three exactly parallel experiments with the roots 
fed upon the land by sheep instead of being carted away. 

I may mention that there is another series of six experi- 
ments, corresponding in every respect with tliose the results 
of which are given in the Tallies, with the exception that 
bare fallow, instead of either beans or clover, has been taken 
l)etween the barley and the wheat in each course since the 
first, when clover was taken. I do not propose to refer to 
this last set of experiments on the present occasion, as to do 
so would lead me away from my subject; but I may observe 
that the comparison between a rotation with clover or beans, 
and one with bare fallow, presents many points of interest. 

1 will now call attention to the results obtained in these 
Rotation Experiments. In Table I. is given the produce of 
roots, of corn, and of clover hay, and to this I shall confine 
my remarks. But, for the information of those who may wish 
to study the subject further, there are given in Table II. the 
amounts of the " Swede-tops " and of the straw also. 



10 



IS HIGHER FARMING A REMEDY FOR LOWER PRICES ? 



TABLE I. 

Experiments on Four-course Eotation, at Eothamsted. 

Summary : — Average Produce of Boots, Corn, and Clover Hinj ; 
Eight Courses, 1848-1879. 





Roots 
Carted. 


Roots 
Fed. 


RootsSwedcs, 7 crops; 1848, 1852, 1856, 1860, 
1864, (1868 failed), 1872, 1876. 


Tons. 


Tons. 


Unmanured, continuously, 

Superphospliate, for Roots only, .... 
Complex Manure, for Roots only, .... 


U 

74 

131 


U 

H 

13i 


BarUy Gram, 8 crops; 1849, 1853, 1857, 1861, 
1865, 1869, 1873, 1877. 


Bushels. 


Bushels. 


Unmanured, continuously, 

Superphosphate, for Roots only, .... 
Complex Manure, for Roots only, .... 


35 

28i 

41| 


30| 
39| 
46i 


Bean Corn, 6 crops; 1854, 1858, 1862, 1866, 
1870, 1878. 


Bushels. 


Bushels. 


Unmanured, continuously, 

Superphosphate, for Roots only, .... 
Complex Manure, for Roots only, .... 


12| 
12i 
211 


12 
14| 

24| 


Clover, 1850 and 1874. (Calculated as Hay.) 


Cwts. 


Cwts. 


1 1850, . 
Unmanured, continuously, . -J ^ • • 

L Mean, . 


54 
31f 


49| 

28 


42^ 


38| 


(1850, . 
Super) iliosphate, for Roots only. -' ' ' " 

L Mean, . 


571 

Ml 


514 
62| 


55 


571 


(1850, . 
Complex Manure, for Roots only, -[ ' ' ' 

I JMean, . 


63 


621 

87 


73 1 


74| 


Wheat Crain, 7 crops; 1851, 1855, 1859, 186.3, 
1867, 1871, 1875. 


Bushels. 


Bushehs. 


Unmanured, continuously, 

Superphosphate, for Roots only, .... 
Complex Manure, for Roots only. .... 


30 

291 

33i 


26 

321 

33{- 



IS HIGHER FARMING A REMEDY FOR LOWER PRICES ^ 11 



TABLE II. 

Experiments ox Four-course Rotation, at Eothamsted. 

Summary : — Average Produce of Swede- To'ps and of Strato ; 
Eight Courses, 1848-1879. 





Roots 


Roots 




Carted. 


Fed. 


Swcdc-Toiys, 7 crops; 1848, 1852, 1856, 1860, 






1864, (1868 failed), 1872, 1876. 


Tons. 


Tons. 


Unmanured, continuously, ..... 


1 

2 


h 


Superphospliate, for Roots only, .... 


If 


H 


Complex Manure, for Roots only, .... 


2^ 


2i 


Barley Straw, 8 crops; 1849, 1853, 1857, 1861, 




. 


1865, 1869, 1873, 1877. 


Cwts. 


Cwts. 


Unmanured, continuously, 


19i 


171 


Superphosphate, for Roots only, .... 


15h 


221 


Complex Manure, for Roots only,. 


23 


28f 


Bean Straw, 6 crops; 1854, 1858, 1862, 1866, 






1870, 1878. 








Cwts. 


Cwts. 


Unmanured, continuously, 


9| 


9i 


Su])erphosphate, for Roots only, .... 


lOf 


13i 


Complex Manure, for Roots only, .... 


161 


16| 


Wheat Straw, 7 crops; 1851, 1855, 1859, 1863, 






1867, 1871, 1875. 


Cwts. 


Cwts. 


Unmanured, continuously, 


28 


25i 


Superphosphate, for Roots only, .... 


29 


32| 


Complex Manure, for Roots only,. 


351 


351 



In the upper division of Table I. you have the average 
produce of roots per course, over seven courses (one failing), 
under each of the three conditions as to manure, and both on 
the carted and on the fed portions of the land. You will 
observe that, without manure, there was practically no crop 
of roots at all. The swedes which grew did not represent the 
cultivated root you are accustomed to see, either in size, form, 
or composition. Mineral superphosphate of lime, alone, in- 
creased the crop consideraldy, giving an average of between 7 
and 8 tons of roots. The complex manure gave an average of 



12 IS HIGHER FARMING A REMEDY FOR LOWER PRICES ? 

al>i)ut 5 tons more, raising the crop to about 13 tons. You will 
observe that, under neither condition as to manuring was 
there any material ditierence in the succeeding crop of roots 
grown on the portion from which they had previously been 
carted, as compared with that on which they had always been 
fed. It is to be concluded, therefore, that the manure left on 
the land by the sheep, was either taken np by the intermediate 
crops, lost by drainage, or remained in the land in a condition 
not available for the next crop of roots. 

There being practically no crop of roots to carry away from 
the unmanured land, and as little to be fed on the land, we 
should naturally expect scarcely any difference in the amounts 
of the crops subsequently grown on the two portions of un- 
manured land. We find, however, a considerable difference, 
there being an average of more than 4 bushels of barley in 
favour of the portion from which the roots were carted, as 
compared with that on which they were fed. It is quite cer- 
tain that this anomalous result is not due to any want of care 
in the conduct of the experiments. It may, I think, safely be 
attributed to a slight but unfortunate difference in the charac- 
ter of the land. In the present state of our knowledge on 
such subjects, considerable caution is necessary in attempting 
to trace a connection between the fertility of a soil and its 
composition as shown by analysis. Still, I may mention that, 
at two periods, with an interval of seven years between, 
sanq^les of the first 9 inches, the second 9 inches, and the 
third 9 inches, or to a total depth of 27 inches, have been 
taken from each of the separate plots of land; and, on each 
occasion, analysis has shown a marked superiorit}^ in the land 
from which the roots are carted, and which has yielded the 
largest crops of both barley and wheat ; and the superiority is 
the more marked in the second and third than in the top 9 
inches of soil. 

You will doubtless notice with some surprise that so much 
barley was grown on land in a condition incapable of growing 
even a moderate crop of roots. From 4 to 4J quarters of 
Ijarley is probably as much as the average yield of that crop 
in Great Britain. On this point it should be borne in mind, 
that as nothing was removed in the preceding root crop, the 
hind was, to all intents and ])nfp'is"s, fallowed for the barlev. 



IS IIIGIIEE FARMING A EE^NIEDY FOR LOWER PRICES ^ 13 

It will l)e seen, further on, however, that the wheat crop 
growing in this permanently unnianured rotation, also ap- 
proached very closely to the average yield of tliat crop over 
the country at large. 

Upon the land manured with mineral superphosphate for 
the Sw^edes, the removal of about 8 tons of roots (and the tops) 
has reduced the produce of barley to 28;^ bushels, or to nearly 
3 bushels less than the lowest unnianured produce ; whilst the 
consumption of the Swedes on the land has raised the produce 
to nearly 40 bufihels. The exhaustion of the soil by the re- 
moval of the roots is thus equal to the loss of more than 11^ 
bushels of barley. 

Turning to the complex manure plots, it will be seen that, 
although from the portion from which the roots were carted a 
much larger cj[uantity was removed than from the correspond- 
ing portion of the superphosphate plots, still the crop of barley 
was very much greater. It was, in fact, about 13| bushels 
more than where the superphosphate roots were removed, and 
even from 1 to 2 bushels more than where the superphosphate 
roots were consumed upon the land. 

The explanation of this is not far to seek. The superphos- 
phate supplied no nitrogen, but it enabled the root crop to 
gather up a quantity already accumulated within the soil 
itself. The available stock within the soil of this important 
substance was so far drawn upon by the removal of the 8 tons 
of roots, and their tops, that the succeeding crop of barley was 
much reduced. In the rape-cake and ammonia salts of the 
complex manure, on the other hand, from 130 to 140 lbs. of 
nitrogen were supplied, and this is very much more than was 
removed in the 13 tons of roots grown by it. There was, 
therefore, a considerable residue of that supplied in the manure 
available for the succeeding barley crop, which was, accord- 
ingly, raised to 41-^ bushels. 

The consumption on the land of the Swedes grown by 
the complex manure has added only about 5:^ bushels 
more. Nevertheless, it is certain that by far the larger 
proportion of the nitrogen, and other constituents, derived 
from the soil by a crop of roots, is returned to it when 
they are consumed by animals on the land; whilst, of those 
constituents which are derived by the plant from the atmo- 



14 IS HK.aiEK FAKMING A liKMKDY FuK LOWElf rillCE.S ? 

Sphere, by far the larger proportion is returned to the atmo- 
sphere by the animals. 

It is obvious that, in this experiment, where the highly 
manured roots were fed on the laud, compared with that where 
they \vere drawn oft', we have, so far as the succeeding barley 
is concerned, an instance of high farming, \vithout a corre- 
sponding return in the amount of produce. 

Turning to the bean crops, it will be observed tliat, both on 
the unmanured and the superphosphate plots, they are very 
small. On the unmanured plots there is practically no ditier- 
ence between where the roots had been carted and where they 
had been fed. On the superphosphate jDlot the crop of beans 
was rather higher where the roots had been fed. On the 
complex manure plots the crop of beans was considerably 
higher; being about 22 bushels where the roots had been carted, 
and about 24^- bushels where they had been fed. This is 
rather more than double the amount obtained without manure. 
The difference, or 12 bushels, is, therefore, due to the residue 
of the manures left after the removal of the barley. 

The difference in the amounts of produce of the two crops 
of clover is exceedingly interesting. Between 1850, when the 
first, and 1874, wdien the second crop of clover was taken, six 
crops of wheat, six crops of barley, and five crops of beans had 
been removed from the whole of the plots, and from one-lialf 
of them five crops of roots in addition. 

On the unmanured plots about 1 ton less hay was grown 
per acre in 1874 than 24 years previously. On the super- 
phosphate plots the second clover crop was slightly lower than 
the first where the roots (as well as all the other intermediate 
crops) had been removed ; but it was in a greater degree 
higher where the roots had been consumed on the land. It is 
remarkable that, although the intermediate crops removed con- 
siderably more nitrogen, and also more of other constituents, 
from the superphosphate than from the unmanured plots, the 
superphosphate plots should still yield a much higher crop 
of clover at the second period. I am disposed to think that 
this is due, in part at least, to the gypsum contained in the 
superphosphate, but probably partly also to the reactions 
of the superphosphate in liberating other constituents within 
the soil. 



IS HIGHER FARMING A REMEDY FOR LOWER PRICES ? 15 

On the complex manure plots the clover crop of the first 
course was considerably higher than that on either of the other 
plots, and the later crop, that of 1874, was about 1 ton more 
than the earlier one, on both the carted and the fed portions. 
Comparing the highest crop with the complex manure with 
the lowest without manure, there is a difference of nearly 8 
tons more clover hay where the land was in the much higher 
condition. Since the commencement of the experiments there 
had been seven, and since the previous clover crop in 1850 
there had been six, applications of the complex manure ; and 
although a large proportion of the nitrogen supplied in it is 
accounted for in the increase of produce removed, a large 
amount still remained unaccounted for. It is seen, therefore, 
that an important effect of the red clover is to gather up the 
residue of manure which none of the other crops in the rotation 
had been able to do. It is considered a great desideratum to 
grow red clover as frequently as possible ; but it is obvious 
that the crops must be small, or fail altogether, if it be at- 
tempted to grow it when there is not a sufficient accumulated 
residue of the proper manurial constituents available within 
the soil. 

In the lowest division of the Table the average produce of 
the seven wheat crops is given. You will observe that there 
is exactly the same difference between the produce of the two 
unmanured portions as in the case of the barley, namely, 4 
bushels; and that the lowest amount is again where the roots 
were fed on the land. This result affords further confirmation 
of the supposition that there was a difference in the character 
of the soil of the two plots. The average produce of the two 
unmanured plots is 28 bushels of wheat, and it was 33 bushels 
of barley. Thus, we have the remarkable fact, as already 
alluded to, that upon land entirely unmanured for 31 years 
the crops of barley and of wheat grown in the rotation have 
very nearly corresponded with the average yield of those crops 
in the United Kingdom. 

The crops of wheat on the superphosphate and on the com- 
plex manure plots do not differ very much. They are higher 
where the superphosphate roots were fed than where they were 
carted ; and they are rather higher still on both the complex 
manure plots, but identical on the two plots so manured, from 



10 IS HIGHER I'AEMING A KEMEDY FuK LOWER PRICES ? 

one of wliicli the roots were carted, whilst on the other they 
were fed. 

I think yoii will agree with me in thinking that the result 
of this high farming, where the highly manured roots were fed 
upon the land, is somewhat disappointing ; and that to farm 
still higher, as prices fall, would be a mistake. 

I have long ago satisfied myself that the four-course rota- 
tion, and the feeding of roots upon the land, or even the gro\\th 
of turnips at all, is quite unsuitable on the soil and with the 
climate of Eothamsted. We have learnt mach resp)ecting the 
action of manures, the requirements of different crops, and the 
influence of climate upon them, during the many years of the 
jirogress of our field experiments, and among other things, that 
we can gather up much more of the manure applied, l;iy means 
of a mangold than of a turnip cro]). 

E,i/periiiwiits witli Fdvinyard Maiunr. 

I will now bring before you some experiments in wliich 
farm-yard manure has been applied many years in succession 
t:3 different crops. When you are urged to farm higher, the 
meaning is that you should put more dung upon your land. 
Consequently, it is of great importance to ascertain, with as 
much accuracy as possible, the effects of the app)lication of 
large quantities of dung. 

In Table III. is given the produce of wheat, grain and straw, 
and of barley, grain and straw, by the application of 14 tons 
of farmyard manure per acre per annum. In the upper divi- 
sion of the Table the results obtained with wheat, and in the 
lower those obtained with barley, are recorded. The experi- 
ments on wheat have now been continued for 35 years, and 
the average produce per acre per annum is given for the first 
8 years, the next 9 years, the next 9 years, and the last 9 
years. The experiments on barley have been continued for 
27 years, and the results are given for the three periods of 9 
years each, corresponding with the last three periods in the 
case of the wheat. 



IS IlIGHEK FAKMING A EEMEDY FOE LOWER PKICES ? 



17 



TABLE III. 

TRODUCE OF WHEAT AND OF BARLEY, BY 14 TONS FARMYARD 
MANURE PER ACRE, EVERY YEAR. 





Average per acre per 1 
annum. 


Dressed gt,.^^,,,_ 
Lorn. 


Wheat, year after year on the same haul — 
35 years, 1844-1878. 

First Period, 8 years, 1844-1851, . 
Second Period. 9 years, 1852-1860, . 
Third Period, 9 years, 1861-1869, . 
Fourth Period, 9 years, 1870-1878, . 

Barley, year after year on the saiitc Uoid — 
17 years, 1852-1878. 

First Period, 9 years, 1852-1860, . 
Second Period, 9 years, 1861-1869, . 
Third Period, 9 years, 1870-1878, . 


Buslu'ls. 

28 
34i 
37 i 
31 

44 
52 

493 


Cwts. 

26| 
34| 
331 
•291 

26 

303 
291 



Eef erring first to the wheat, you will oljserve that tlie 
average produce of the first 8 years is the lowest, tliat of the 
next 9 years is higher, that of the third period is higher still, 
and that of the last 9 years again considerably lower ; being 
only about 3 bushels more than over the first period, about 3 
bushels less than over the second, and 6 bushels less than over 
the third period. 

It is quite obvious from this result, that the produce was 
not at all in proportion to the accumulation of manure in the 
land. When the soil was analysed a few years ago, it was 
found that the first 9 inches in depth was nearly twice as 
rich in nitrogen as that of any of the artifically manured plots, 
yielding as much, or even more, produce. There can be no 
doubt that, whilst there is a general tendency to increase in 
produce as the result of this great accumulation of manure in 
the soil, the fluctuations are greatly dependent on the char- 
acters of the seasons. Thus, the third period, which gives 
the highest produce, included some very productive years, 
whilst the fourth period included a number of bad seasons, 
the adverse influence of which, the constantly increasing 

B 



1 8 IS HIGHER FARMING A REMEDY FuR LOWER PRICES ? 

accumulation of manure within the soil only very partially 
obviated. It will be observed, too, that the amount of straw, 
the excess of which is a sure sign of excess of manure and 
over luxuriance, upon the whole increases rather less than 
that of the corn ; there being less straw over the third period, 
with the highest produce of corn, tlian over the second with 
a lower produce of corn ; whilst the fourth period gives con- 
siderably less than either the second or the third. This is the 
more remarkable, since the annual application of 14 tons of 
dung will have annually brought upon the land the equiva- 
lent of from 3 to 4 tons of straw. The fluctuations in the 
produce of straw, as well as in that of the corn, further illus- 
trate the influence of season in spite of the accumulation of 
manure. 

Turning to the experiments with barley, we have, upon the 
whole, very accordant results over the three periods, compared 
with the same three periods with wheat. Thus, the last period 
l)ut one, which included a number of very good seasons, gave 
more produce than the last period, notwithstanding the greater 
accumulation of manure in the later years. There is in the 
barley, too, as with the wheat, no striking increase in the pro- 
duction of straw ; for although there was consideral)le variation 
in the proportion of corn to straw in individual years, accord- 
ing to season, the average proportion is almost identical for 
each of the three periods. 

It is then obvious, that there is no increase of produce, of 
either wheat or barley, over the later years, at all commensurate 
with the increased accumulation of manure in the soil. 

You will doubtless be interested to know something of the 
after effects of these great accumulations of dung in the soil, 
seeing that they increase the crops so inadequately during the 
period of the application of the manure. 

Table IV. affords some information on this point. The two 
upper divisions relate to barley, and the lower one to meadow 
hay. After 14 tons of farmyard manure liad been applied for 
20 years in succession on one plot in the field devoted to the 
continuous growth of barley, the plot was divided. On one- 
half the annual application of the dung has been continued, 
now for a period of 7 years more ; whilst the other half has 
been left unmanured, also now for 7 years. In the experi- 



IS HIGHER FARMING A REMEDY FOR LOWER PRICES ? 



VJ 



meuts on meadow hay, the application of 14 tons of farm- 
yard manure per acre per annum was continued for 8 years ; 
and the land has since been left unmanured for 15 years. 
The Table shows the produce of barley, corn and straw, and 
of hay, during the periods of the application of the dung, and 
after the cessation of the application. It also shows the 
increase over the continuously unmanured produce over the 
respective periods. 

TABLE IV. 

SHOWING THE EFFECTS OF THE UNEXHAUSTED RtiSIDUE OF 
FARMYARD MANURE. 





Average 
per acre per annum. 

1 


Produce. 


Increase 

over 

continuously 

unmanured. 


Barlnj Grain. 

20 years, 1852-1871, 14 tons farmyard ) 
manure every year \ 

7 years, 1872-1878, 14 tons farmyard | 
manure every year \ 

7 years, 1872-1878, unmanured, after 20 i 
years farmyard manure . . . . \ 

Barlcij Straiv. 

20 years, 1852-1871, 14 tons farmyard \ 
manure every year . . . . . \ 

7 years, 1872-1878, 14 tons farmyard ) 
manure every year . . . . . \ 

7 years, 1872-1878, unmanured, after 20 
years farmyard manure . . . . ) 

Meadow Hay. 

14 tons farmyaid manure every year, 8 ] 
years, 1856-1863 \ 

( 5 years, 1864-1868 
Afterwards unmanured < 5 years, 1869-1873 

( 5 years, 1874-1878 


Bushels. 
481 

49i 

36 1 

Cwts. 
28i 

291 

20i 

42| 

401 
291 
23i 


Bushels. 

28i 

36 

m 

Cwts. 
16i 

23 

13i 

191 

191 

lOi 

6i 



It will be seen that there is an average of only 1^ bushel 
of barley grain and If cwts. of straw, per acre per annum, 
more over the last 7 years than over the first 20 years, where 



20 IS HIGHER FARMING A REMEDY FOR LOAVER PRICES ? 

the application of the dung was continued. Where the dung 
was discontinued after 20 years, the produce of corn was, over 
the next 7 years, not quite three-fourths as much, and that of 
the straw but little over two-thirds as much, as where it was 
continued. The average annual deficiency was 13^ bushels 
of corn, and 9-^ cwts. of straw. Compared with the con- 
tinuously unmanured produce over the same periods (which, 
however, declined considerably over the later years) it is seen 
that the annually applied dung gave an average increase, over 
the first 20 years of 28:^ bushels of corn and 16^ cwts. of 
straw, and over the last 7 years of 36 busliels of corn and 
23 cwts. of straw. And where the dung was discontinued 
over the last 7 years, there was an average increase of nearly 
23 bushels of grain and 13-| cwts. of straw over the con- 
tinuously unmanured produce. In the last year of the seven, 
1878, the plot where the application of dung was continued 
gave 36j bushels of corn and nearly 2(3^ cwts. of straw more 
than the unmanured plot ; and the plot where the dung was 
discontinued gave, in the same or seventh year of the discon- 
tinuance, nearly 12 bushels of corn, and nearly lOj cwts. of 
straw, more than the unmanured. Tt is obvious, therefoi-e, 
that the residue of the 20 years application of dung is still 
yielding increase. It is, however, gradually declining. But 
there is no doubt that the resichie will continue to be effective 
in a still more declining ratio for many years to come. It 
would, indeed, take considerably more than a century at the 
present rate to recover in increase of produce all the nitrogen 
of the manure which has not yet been so recovered. 

Turning now to the results obtained with meadow-hay, as 
already stated, 14 tons of farmyard manure were applied per 
acre annually for 8 years in succession, and the produce has 
since been taken for 15 years without manure. The Table 
shows the average annual produce and increase of hay over 
the 8 years of the application, and over the first 5, the second 
5, and the third 5 years afterwards. It will be observed that 
over the 8 years of the application the average produce of 
hay was nearly 2 tons 3 cwts. ; and the average increase over 
the continuously unmanured produce was not quite 1 ton. 
Over the first 5 years after the cessation of the application, the 
average produce was about 2 cwts. less; but, substantiallv, 



IS HIGHEK FARMING A REMEDY FOR LOWER PRICES ? 21 

Loth produce and increase averaged much about the same as 
over the 8 years of the application. Over the second 5 years, 
the produce diminished to less than three-fourths as much as 
over the first 5, and the increase was little over 10 cwts. of 
hay per acre per annum. During the last 5 of the 15 years, 
the produce was little more than half as much as its original 
amount, and the increase over the unuianured produce of the 
same period was not quite 7 cwts. 

During the 8 years of the application of the dung there 
were obtained, in all, 17 tons 3 cwts. of hay, corresponding to 
7 tons 13 cwts. of increase ; over the next 15 years there were 
obtained 23 tons 7-^ cwts., corresponding to 9 tons 2^ cwts. of 
increase, due to the residue of the previously applied dung. 
Here, as in the case of the barley, it would require very many 
years to recover anything like the whole of the yet unrecovered 
residue of the previously applied nitrogen of the farmyard 
manure. 

Looking to such results as the above, relating to barley and 
to meadow hay, it is not difficult to understand why a tenant 
who has been farming highly for a number of years should 
endeavour to get out some of the residue of the manure which 
he has accumulated in the land before he leaves it. But if so 
small a proportion of the constituents of the manure is re- 
covered in the increase of crop during the years of the appli- 
cation when dung is very liberally used, it is not so evident 
that higher farming, which means more dung, should be a 
remedy for lower prices. Nor can I understand why the so- 
called " lasting " effects of dung should be considered such a 
merit. The Eothamsted experiments with various crops agree 
in showing, that a given amount of constituents supplied in 
dung does less work, and takes a longer time to do it, than 
when supplied in any other form. 

E.rjjcriments with Artificial Manvrcs. 

The next illustrations \\\\\ show the comparative effects of 
moderate and of large amounts of artificial manures. In the 
upper division of Table V. we have the average produce of 
wheat, both corn and straw, over 27 years — by a complex 
mineral manure used alone ; by the same mineral manure and 



22 IS HIGHER FARMING A REMEDY FOR LOWER PRICES ? 

200 lbs. ammonia salts ; by the same and 400 lbs. ; and by 
the same and 600 lbs. ammonia salts. In the lower division 
of the Table is given the average produce of barley over 6 
years — with supherphosphate of lime alone ; mth superphos- 
phate and 200 lbs. ; and with superphosphate and 400 lbs. 
ammonia salts. 



TABLE Y. 

SHOWING THE EFFECTS OF MODERATE AND OF LARGE 
AMOUNTS OF AMMONIA SALTS. 





Average per acre 
per annum. 


Dressed 
Corn. 


Straw. 


Wheat every year, 27 years, 1852-1878. 

Complex mineral manure, alone, .... 
Complex mineral manure, and 200 lbs. ammonia-salts, 
Complex mineral manure, and 400 lbs. ammonia-salts. 
Complex mineral manui-e, and 600 lbs. ammonia-salts, 

Barley every year, 6 years, 1852-18.")7. 

.Superphosiiliate, alone, 

Su}ierphos])liate, and 200 lbs. ammonia-salts. 
Superphosphate, and 400 lbs. ammonia-salts, 


Bushels. 
15f 
24J 
33i 
36f 

311 

45i 
491 


Cwts. 
131 
22| 
33| 
401 

16| 
281 
34 



Eeferring first to the wheat, it will be observed that by the 
addition of 200 lbs. of ammonia-salts per acre per annum to 
the mineral manure, an average increase of nearly 9 bushels of 
grain is obtained. By the addition of a second 200 lbs., in all 
400 lbs. of ammonia-salts, there is a furtlier increase of the 
same amount, that is, nearly 9 bushels. By the addition of 
a third 200 lbs., in all 600 lbs. of ammonia-salts, there is a 
further increase of only 3A-, instead of 9 bushels. In like 
manner the first 200 lbs. of^ammonia-salts give 9^, the second 
11, and the third only about 6-|- cwts. increase of straw. Now, 
assuming that the application of 400 lbs. of ammonia-salts was 
the limit of high farming with profit with wheat at 6s. per 
bushel, I cannot see how it could be maintained that a further 



IS HIGHER FARMING A REMEDY FOR LOWER PRICES ? 23 

200 lbs., yielding little more than a third as much increase as 
when used in more moderate quantity, should be employed 
because the price of wheat was reduced to 5s. per bushel. On 
the contrary, the conclusion I should draw from the results 
of these experiments is, that the application of the 600 lbs. of 
ammonia-salts could only be profitable if the price of vrlieat 
were to rise instead of to fall. 

Again, it will be seen that in the case of the barley, the 
addition to superphosphate of lime, of 200 lbs. of ammonia- 
salts gave an average increase of nearly 14 bushels, Mdiilst 
by the addition of a second 200 lbs., in all 400 lbs. of ammonia- 
salts, a further increase of little more than 4 bushels was 
obtained. It will be observed, however, that whilst with the 
increase of 14 bushels of grain there was an increase of only 
12 cwts. of straw, there was with the further increase of 4 
bushels of grain an increase of 5| cwts. of straw, or a much 
larger proportion of straw to corn in the increase by the second 
than in that by the first 200 lbs. of ammonia-salts. It was, 
in fact, so evident from the bulk, and the laying of the crop, 
that 400 lbs. of ammonia-salts was an excessive application, 
that, after its use for 6 years, the experiment was abandoned. 
Here, again, I think it must be evident that it would be higher, 
and not lower prices, that would justify the higher standard 
of farming. 

From the various results which I have laid before you, you 
will have gathered that when farmyard manure is used, and 
even, though in a less degree, when manure is deposited on 
the land by animals feeding upon it, there is less immediate 
increase for a given amount of constituents supplied, and more 
accumulation within the soil, than when certain artificial 
manures are employed. You must not suppose that, in 
bringing this fact prominently to your notice, I wash in any 
degree to depreciate the importance of, so to speak, natural 
manures, and to exalt that of artificial manures. The pro- 
duction, and the use, of farmyard manure, are a necessity of 
the general economy of a farm ; and there must be the more 
of it produced, or at any rate the more of animal manures, the 
greater the amount of meat produced. Nor would it be 
possible to rely mainly on artificial manures. I do think, 



24 IS HIGHER FARMING A REMEDY FOR LOWER TRICES ? 

however, that fanners generally do not sufficiently recognise 
the slowness of the action of the natural manures of the farm ; 
and that, so far as they do so, they frequently even look upon 
it as a merit rather than otherwise, that it should be as they 
say, more " lasting." But slowness of action means slowness of 
return for the outlay; and this will be the greater the more 
excessive the amount of the manure applied. In my opinion, 
tlie object to be attained, and that which I have no doubt will 
characterise the most successful farming of the future, is to 
get as quick a return as possible for the outlay in manures, 
whether natural or artificial. This can only be fully accom- 
plished — with freedom in the growth and sale of that produce 
which is the most profitable, the selection of the crops which 
are the most suitable to the soils and seasons of the locality 
and the demands of the market, and such a judicious adapta- 
tion of natural and artificial manures to the crops to be grown, 
as to obtain the maximum increase of produce, with the mini- 
mum residue left unproductive in the soil, and subject to loss 
by drainage, and in other ways. 

To sum up in regard to this first branch of my subject : — It 
has been shown by reference to the results of experiments on 
an ordinary four-course rotation with diflerent manures, in 
some cases carting off the roots, and in others consuming them 
on the land, that, beyond a certain limit, the increase of pro- 
duce was not commensurate witli the increase in the amount 
of manure accumulated within the soil. The next illustrations 
showed that, when farmyard manure was used in excessive 
amount, for the direct growth of either wheat or barley, the 
increase of produce by no means corresponded with the 
accumulation of manurial constituents within the soil ; that, 
notwithstandhig an increasing accumulation from year to year, 
tlie crops even diminished in the later years under the 
influence of bad seasons, the increased amount of manure in 
I lie soil not fully compensating for the adverse influences of 
the seasons ; and lastly, that the unexhausted residue of the 
previously applied dung, though yielding a considerable 
increase for many years afterwards, did so in a rapidly de- 
creasing ratio, and only in such proportion that it would take 
very many years to recover the manure applied; even if, which 
cannot be supposed, it were ever fully recovered. In like 



IS HIGHER FARMING A REMEDY FOR LOWER PRICKS ? 25 

manner it has been shown, that when artificial nitrogenous 
manures were used in gradually increasing amounts, the 
amount of increase obtained for a given amount of manure 
employed, very greatly diminished when the quantity 
applied exceeded a certain limit, which may be called the 
standard of high farming ; so that, a given quantity of further 
increase was obtained only at a greatly increased proportional 
cost for manure. 

The general and uniform result of the whole is, that, 
whether we go from high to still higher farming with an 
ordinary rotation of crops, with large amounts of farmyard 
manure applied year after year for the growth of corn, or with 
artificial manures in gradually increasing amounts, less increase 
of produce is obtained for a given amount of manure applied, 
the greater the excess of it over what may be termed the 
standard of moderate high farming. I leave you to judge 
whether, under such circumstances, the advance from high to 
still higher farming is likely to compensate you for lower 
prices of your produce. 

The Manure produced hy the Animals of the Farm. 

I now come to the second branch of my subject, namely, 
the cost of the manure produced upon the farm. It may per- 
]iaps be assumed tliat, in the case of the horses working upon 
the farm, their labour may be taken as an equivalent for the 
cost of their food, the expenses of attendance, &c., and that 
the manure they produce is, so far, obtained free of cost. In 
the case of the feeding of animals for the production of meat, 
store stock may be cheap and fat stock dear, or vice versa, 
cattle food may be cheap and meat dear, and so on. In con- 
sidering therefore whether, as a rule, the value of the meat 
produced is more or less than the cost of the food of the 
animal, together with the other expenses, it will be necessary 
to exclude from the calculation all such exceptional cases as 
above referred to ; to take as the basis of any conclusions (so 
far as we can estimate it) only the average amount of food 
required to produce a given weight of increase ; and to com- 
pare the cost of such food, and other expenses, with the vahie 
of the increase. Looking at the subject from this point of 
view, I think it will be found that the outlay is generally 



26 



IS lUGHElt FAKiilNG A liEMEDY FOR LUWEli PKICES ? 



much ill excess of tlie receipts ; and that there is, therefore, a 
Imhiuce left over which must be reckoned as the cost of the 
manure. 

Confining my attention to cattle, I shall first endeavour to 
show, by reference to published records relating to animals of 
certainly above average quality, and undoubtedly liberally 
fed, what is the probable rate of increase that may be ex- 
pected in such cases ; and secondly, what is the average 
amount of food required to produce a given amount of in- 
crease. 

In Table VI. are given, the ages, weights, and increase — 
first, of a number of prize cattle exhibited at Smithfield, in 
December 1878, as recorded in the Agricultural Gazette of 
January 13, 1879 ; secondly, of a number of prize cattle 
exhibited at the Chicago Society's Show (United States), and 
reported in the Countrji Gentleman' s Newspaper ; thirdly, of 
some French cattle of the Nivernais-Charolais breed, the par- 
ticulars of which will be found in the Journal of the Royal 
Agricultural Society of England, vol. xv. p. 213; lastly, at the 
foot of the Table is given, for comparison, the estimate of the 
average rate of increase during the fattening period, as adopted 
at Rothamsted many years ago. 



TABLE VI. 

Ages, Weights, and Increase of Cattle. 



Description. 


Average 
Age. 


Average 

Final 

Weight 

per head. 


Increase 
per 
Day. 


Increase 

per 
1000 lbs. 
Live- 
weight 

per 
Week. 




No. 

of 

Class. 


No. 

in 

Class. 


Prize Ctiit.lc at Smith- 
field, 1878. 

Devons, . 

I 


1 

2 
3 
4 


9 

7 
5 
3 


Week 
116 
167 
215 
165 


lbs. 
1301 
1568 
1785 
1456 


lbs. 
1-60 
1-34 
1-19 
1-26 


lbs. 
14-8 
10-5 
8-3 
10-6 


A\ 


'erage. 


165f 


15274 


1-35 


11-1 



IS HIGHER FARMING A REMEDY FOR LOWER PRICES ? 27 



Description . 








Increase 




Average 


Average 
Final 


Increase 


per 
1000 lbs. 










No. 
of 


No. 


Age. 


Weight 
per head. 


per 
Day. 


Live- 
weight 




in 






per 




Class. 


Class. 








Week. 








"Weeks. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 




6 


10 


1181 


1615 


1-95 


14-9 




7 


5 


lC5i 


1964 


1-70 


10-9 


Herefords, . . -J 

1 
1 

I 


8 
9 


2 
2 


2211 

178i 


2085 
1731 


1-34 
1-39 


8-2 
10-0 


Average, 


171 


18481 


1-60 


11-0 


■ 


11 1 6 


120 


1698 


2-02 


14-8 




12 10 


160 


1960 


1-75 


11-3 


Short Horns, . 


13 5 

14 10 

Average, 


163 
172 


2352 
1876 


2-06 
1-56 


11-3 
10-5 


153| 


19711 


1-85 


12-0 


f 


16 


7 


116 


1588 


1-96 


15-2 




17 


8 


151 


1818 


1-72 


11-9 


Sussex, . 


18 


4 


203 


2390 


1-68 


9-1 


19 


7 


160 


1736 


1 -55 


11-1 


Average, 


1574 


1883 


1-73 


11-8 


General average, 


162 


1808 


1-63 


11-5 


Prize Cattle, CJiicago Society, 










United States. 










1. Steers, 4 years and over, 1st Prize, 


268-6 


2085 


1-10 


7-1 


2. ,, „ „ 2d Prize, 


271-7 


2440 


1-28 


7-0 


3. ,, 3 yrs. and under, 1st Prize, 


182-9 


2115 


1-65 


10-4 


4. ,, ,, „ 2d Prize, 


174-3 


2060 


1-68 


10-9 


5. ,, 2ys. and under 3, 1st Prize, 


138-4 


1705 


1-76 


13-5 


6. „ ,, „ 2d Prize, 


139-7 


1600 


1-63 


13-4 


7. , , 1 yr. and under 2, 1 st Prize, 


92-9 


1480 


2-28 


20-0 


8. ,, „ ,, 2d Prize, 

Average, 


95-7 


1275 


1-90 


19-1 


170-5 


1845 


1-66 


12-7 


Nivernais-Charolais Cattle — French. 










No. 1, 


134-8 


1478 


1-57 


13-6 


No. 2, 


156-4 


1987 


1-81 


11-9 


No. 3, 


160-8 


1893 


1-68 


11-6 


No. 4, 

Average, 
General average of all, . 


174-0 


2079 


1-71 


10-8 


156-5 


1859 


1-69 


12-0 


163-7 


1826 


1-65 


11-9 


Rothamsted adopted average, . 








10-11 



28 LS IIKJHER FARMING A REMEDY FOR LOWER PRICES ? 

Before discussing the figures given in the Table, it will he 
well to give some explaucation of how they are obtained. The 
ages, and the final weight per head, are the actual data recorded. 
The increase per day is obtained by dividing the final weight 
by the number of days of age. This is the mode of represen- 
tation adopted in the United States ; and the figures given in 
this column for the Chicago cattle are those actually recorded; 
whilst those for the Smithfield and French cattle are calcu- 
lated as above described. It is obvious that such a mode of 
reckoning, however valuable it may be in comparing the rates 
of increase of animals of the same description, oxen, for example, 
but of different breeds, or of different ages, it is quite inappli- 
cable in comparing the rates of increase of animals of different 
descriptions, and of different sizes; of oxen, sheep, and pigs, with 
one another, for example. Many years ago, when considering 
this subject, we felt the necessity of adopting some mode of 
representation which enabled us to compare the amounts of 
food consumed, and the amounts of increase produced, not only 
among animals of the same, but of different descriptions, and 
of all sizes. Accordingly, the standards we adopted were: — 

The amount of food consumed per 100 lbs. live-weight per 
week. 

The amount of food required to produce 100 11 >s. increase in 
live-weight. 

The increase per 100 lbs. live- weight per week. 

But as, on the present occasion, I am dealing with cattle 
only, I give, as you will see in the last column of the Table, 
the increase per 1000 lbs. live-weight per week. At the foot 
of this last column is given the average increase per 1000 lbs. 
live-weight per week of all the cases recorded in the Table, 
including the different breeds of the different countries ; 
" babies " of two years old and under, and mature animals of 
four years old and over. This general average of such very 
varied individual cases shows 11'9, or nearly 1'2 lbs. increase 
per 1000 lbs. live- weight per week, whilst the Rothamsted 
estimate, adopted many years ago, is 10 to 11 lbs. per 1000 lbs. 
live-weight per week, as the average rate of increase of oxen 
during the last few months of feeding on good fattening food. 
To go a little more into detail, compared with this Rothamsted 
estimate of 10 to 11 lbs., the average of the different lots of the 



IS HIGHER FARMING A REMEDY FOR LOWER PRICES ? 29 

Smitlifield prize cattle gives 11-5 lbs., that of all the Chicago 
cattle 12-7 lbs., and that of the four French cattle 12 lbs. 

In making these comparisons it must be borne in mind, 
however, that whilst in the case of the Smithfield, Chicago, 
and French cattle, the increase is, for want of other data, cal- 
culated upon the average live- weight from birth to final 
weight, in that of the Eothamsted estimates it is taken upon 
the average weight of the final fattening period only ; and as 
the rate of gross increase upon a given live-weight within a 
given time is considerably higher in the earlier than in the later 
periods of the life of the fattening animal, the figures are,, so 
far, not strictly comparable. 

On the other hand, a mature animal contains a larger pro- 
portion of saleable carcass, and a less proportion of internal 
organs, and offal generally, than a young or store one. The 
mature animal also contains a much higher percentage of dry 
or solid substance, and, accordingly, a lower percentage of 
water. These differences are clearly illustrated in the follow- 
ing Table, which gives the proportion of carcass in 100 fasted 
live- weight, and also the percentages of dry or solid substance, 
and of water, in 10 animals of different descriptions, and in 
different conditions as to age and fatness, which were analysed 
at Eothamsted, now nearly thirty years ago. 



TABLE VII. 

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS ANIMALS. 



Description and Condition of 
Animal. 


In Fasted Live-weight. 


Carcass. 


Total Dry 
Substance. 


Water. 


Fat Calf, . . . . 

Half-Fat Ox, 

Fat Ox, 

Fat Lamb, 

Store Sheep, ..... 
Half-Fat Old Sheep, .... 

Fat Sheep, 

Very Fat Sheep, .... 

Store Pig, . . ... 
Fat Pig, 


Per cent. 
62-0 
647 
66-2 

60-2 
53-3 
53-6 
57-5 
63-1 

66-4 
76-0 


Per cent. 
33-9 

40-3 
48-6 

437 
367 
40-6 
507 
59-6 

397 
547 


Per cent. 
63-0 
51-5 
45-5 

477 
57-3 
50-3 
43-3 
35-2 

55-0 
41-4 



30 IS IIIGIIEII FAEMING A IIEMEDY FOR LOWER PRICES ? 

Thus, yon will see that even a fat calf contained a much 
higher percentage of water, and lower percentage of solid 
matter, than a lialf-fat ox ; whilst the fat ox contained much 
more dry or solid matter than the half-fat one. Then, again, 
among the sheep there is a gradually increasing percentage of 
dry or solid matter, and decreasing percentage of water, from 
the store to the half-fat, from the half-fat to the fat, and from 
the fat to the very fat condition. A similiar result is observed 
as between the store and the fat pig. From these facts you will 
see that, although the gross increase is less in proportion to 
the live-weight as the animal matures, a larger proportion of 
such gross increase consists of carcass, and of real solid matter, 
and a less proportion of offal, and of water. In fact, the 
fattening process may be said to consist in great measure in 
the displacement of water by fat. 

Accepting the figures given in Table VT. as giving a fair idea 
of the rate of increase of well-bred and well-fed animals, the 
question arises — at what cost of food has that increase been 
obtained ? We have no records on this point in regard to 
any of the animals referred to in the Table. We must, there- 
fore, rely upon other data in arriving at a decision on this part 
of the subject. Our own estimate, founded on all the data at 
our command, partly relating to the recorded experience of 
others, and partly to the results of direct experiments of our 
own, led us many years ago to conclude as follows : — 

" Fattening oxen, liberally fed upon good food, composed of 
a moderate proportion of cake or corn, some hay or straw 
chaff, with roots or other succulent food, and well managed, 
will, on the average, consume 12 to 13 lbs. of the dry sub- 
stance of such mixed food, per 100 lbs. live- weight, per week ; 
and they should give 1 lb. of increase for 12 to 13 lbs. dry 
substance so consumed." 

In other words, there will be consumed from 120 to 130 lbs. 
of the dry substance of such mixed food per 1000 lbs. live- 
weio-ht per week, producing on the average 10 lbs. of increase ; 
and 1200 to 1300 lbs. will, therefore, be required to yield 100 
lbs. increase in live-weight. If the mixed food contain no 
straw-chaff, and only a moderate amount of hay-chaff, the 
average amount of dry substance consumed will be the less, 
and the average proportion of increase the more, or vice versa. 



IS HIGHER FARMING A REMEDY FOR LOWER PRICES ? ol 

Accordingly, we have assumed that on a liberal mixture of 
oilcake, clover-chaff, and swedes, as little as 1100 lbs. dry 
substance may be required to produce 100 lbs. increase, and 
as much as 11 lbs. increase may be produced per 1000 lbs. 
live-weight per week. 

The articles which you are accustomed to speak of as dry 
foods, still contain some water. Thus, cakes contain from 
one-eighth to one-ninth, and corn, hay, and straw, about one- 
sixth of their weight of water ; whilst swedes do not contain 
more than 10 to 12, or mangolds more than 12 to 13 per 
cent, of really dry or solid matter ; but the monster roots of 
which we hear so much, sometimes contain only about two- 
thirds as much dry matter as moderately sized and well- 
matured roots should do. Of really dry substance, such as 
my estimates given above require, 1200 to 1300 lbs., say 1250 
lbs., would, in round numbers, be supplied in the following 
amounts of each of the several descriptions of food enumer- 
ated, supposing them to be of fair average composition in that 
respect. 

TABLE VIII. 

AMOUNT OF EACH FOOD CONTAINING 1250 LBS. DRY MATTER. 

Cakes, 124 civts. 

Corn or^Hay, . . . . . . 13 ,, 

Swedish Tiiruiiis, ...... 5 tons. 

Mangolds, 4^ ,, 

The question arises — "What would be the cost of 1250 Ib.s. 
of dry substance, made up of a suitable mixture of these 
various foods, to yield 100 lbs. increase in live weight, and 
whether this would be less or more than the 100 lbs. increase 
would sell for ? 

Well-bred and moderately fattened oxen should yield 58 to 
60 per cent, carcass in fasted live- weight ; very fat oxen may 
yield from 65 to 70 per cent. But of the increase obtained 
during what may be called the fattening period of moderately 
fattened oxen, it may be reckoned that about 70 per cent, will 
be carcass. Supposing you get 8d. per lb. for this, the selling- 
value of your 100 lbs. increase in live-weight will be 46s. 8d. 
Now, I think if you try to make up 1250 lbs. of dry substance 



32 IS HIGHER FARMING A REMEDY FUR LOWER PRICES ? 

by a suitable fattening mixture of the foregoing foods, you 
will find that it will cost you considerably more than 46s. 8d. 
Even if roots alone were used, which would not be considered 
good fattening food, the cost would be more if they were reck- 
oned at their selling price, though less if taken at what is 
called their " consuming value." But with no good fattening 
mixture of cake or corn, hay-chaff, and roots, could 1250 
lbs. of dry matter be obtained for anything approaching 
the sum I have estimated as the value of the increase it will 
produce. 

It is further to 1)6 borne in ndnd that, weight for weight, 
store stock is generally dearer than fat stock. You have also 
to add to the cost of the food various other charges, such as 
rent of buildings, appliances, attendance, and risk. Taking all 
these things into account, I think it is evident that there must 
always be a very considerable proportion of the cost of feeding, 
although varying greatly according to circumstances, which 
must be taken to represent the cost of the manure. 

In 1876, the Council of the Ifoyal Agricultural Society of 
England appointed a committee to consider the question of the 
valuation of unexhausted manures, with reference to the pro- 
visions of the Agricultural Holdings Act ; and a Table of the 
estimated value of the manure obtained by the consumption 
of different articles of food, which I had first published about 
16 years previously, and after reconsideration republished more 
recently, was much discussed and criticised. The general im- 
pression arrived at was, I think, that my estimates of manure- 
value were too high. Accordingly, Dr Gilbert and I selected 
linseed cake as the best known article of purchased cattle- 
food, and, after deducting my estimate of the manure-value 
from the cost of the cake, we endeavoured to calculate whether 
the remainder of the cost could be recovered in the increased 
value of the animal. The best linseed cake was then quoted 
at £12, 10s. per ton, and deducting the manure-value as given 
in my Table, namely, £4, 12s. 6d., there was left £7, 17s. 6d. 
to be charged against the animal, and calculation led us to the 
conclusion that it was extremely doubtful whether this amount 
could be recovered in its increased value. In fact, linseed 
cake appeared to us to command what may be called a fancy 
price. At any rate, it was quite certain that it could not be 



IS HIGHER FARMING A REMEDY FOR LOWER PRICES ? 33 

profitably used, if not fully as much, or even more, than the 
amount of my estimate were charged against the manure. 

Although in the foregoing illustrations I have confined 
my attention to oxen, if the same mode of calculation were 
applied to sheep and to pigs, it would be found in their case 
also that the cost of their food is more than the value of the 
increase it produces. Notwithstanding that the contrary view 
is so frequently assumed, the use of the term " consuming 
value," as distinguished from selling price, seems to recognise 
that food stufis have a value other than as food alone. If 
restrictions upon the sale of roots, hay, and straw, were 
abolished, these articles would soon cease to have what may 
be called a fancy price; and the difference between the so-called 
" consuming value," and the real selling price, would more 
nearly represent the value of the manure. 



In the former part of niy address, I have shown that, beyond 
a certain limit, the increase of crop does not keep pace with 
the increase in the amount of manure applied to the land, and 
that tliis is especially the case in advancing from high to still 
liigher farming. I have now adduced evidence which must, 
I think, convince you that the manures of the farm cost money. 
It seems to me that an obvious deduction from these two facts 
is, that to apply manure in such quantity as to obtain a 
diminished produce for a given amount of it can only be 
profitable when the price of the produce rises, and not when 
it falls. So far, however, as increased production is to be 
attained by the exercise of freedom, intelligence, and economy, 
in management, so as to get the maximum amount and value 
of produce from the manure that is applied to the land, and 
the maximum amount and value of meat and manure for the 
outlay in store-stock and in food, increased production is a 
necessity of the times, and would prove the best remedy for 
lower prices of farm produce. 

I regret to find that the opinions I hold, and have ventured 
to express to you, are not in accordance with those of many 
who write upon the condition of the farming interest at the 
present time. Nor do they quite accord with the advice given 
to you in this room, by Lord Polwarth, only in February last. 
In a letter which his lordship subsequently published, in 



34 IS IIIGIIEK FARMING A REMEDY FOR LOWER PRICES ? 

further explanation of his views, he said that, for increased 
production, " greater liberty in cultivation is desirable ; " and 
again, that, " there must be increased capital, scope for enter- 
prise, and security of tenure." In this I entirely agree, ex- 
cepting that I would venture to say that such changes are not 
only " desirable " but essential. 

To attempt to meet falling prices by increased production 
upon the old lines, that is, by simply increasing the amount of 
manure brought upon the land, and at the same time maintain- 
ing the old rules and restrictions as to cropping and sales, 
would, in my opinion, be entirely futile. If all restrictions 
were abolished, excepting such as would secure that the tenant 
should give up his farm in as good a state as he entered upon 
it, the position of things would be entirely changed, and some 
of my remarks would then require modification accordingly. 

Eecent discussions clearly show that landowners fully 
recognise the gravity of the present state of affairs, and that 
they are desirous of assisting the tenant by the relaxation of 
existing covenants, and in other ways. In addressing tenant- 
farmers, I would venture to ask — whether, on their side, this 
is not a favourable opportunity for taking stock of the modes 
in which they conduct their business, with the view of bring- 
ing their operations more into accord with the rules which 
regulate other commercial undertakings ? 

In illustration of my meaning, I will call attention to the 
way in which the business connected with the stock of the 
farm is generally conducted. Farmers are justly proud of their 
fine animals, and consider them to be the back-bone of British 
agriculture. But is it not a fact that every transaction in this 
immense branch of industry is carried on almost exclusively 
by guess-work ? Neither in purchasing store-stock, nor in 
selling fat stock, are the scales brought into requisition. Again, 
in the feeding operations, neither the amount of increase 
produced, the amount and the cost of the food required to 
produce it, nor the comparative value of different foods in 
regard to their feeding and manure productiveness, are taken 
into calculation. 

Of late, store -stock have been very dear, and I have little 
doubt that, if tested by the scales, it would be found that 
oxen and sheep have been bought at prices which would 



IS HIGHER FARMING A REMEDY FOR LOWER TRICES ? 35 

represent 6d. per lb. Now, 6d. per lb. is £56 per ton. To 
purchase 10 tons of store-stock would not be a very large 
purchase to make. Now, I should like to ask the best judges 
of stock in this room to pick out from a herd of oxen, or a flock 
of sheep, as many as they thought would make up 10 tons in 
weight ; or to see, if two or three went to work independently, 
how nearly their estimates would agree ! If your coal-mer- 
chant, or your manure-dealer, proposed to sell you those com- 
modities by the heap, you would not hear of such a thing, 
and you would insist upon purchasing by weight. But, weight 
for M^eight, these articles bear no comparison in value with 
that of animals. If, then, with articles of comparatively 
little value you will not buy by the lump, regardless of exact 
weight, why should you do so with anything so costly as your 
store-stock ? I admit that I am myself compelled to adopt 
the custom of the trade ; but I nevertheless thoroughly resent 
it, and feel that I never know whether my purchase has been 
a good or a bad one, until I have brought the animals to the 
scales, and calculated the price per pound of live-weight. The 
eye is the proper judge of quality, and the price per pound, or 
per cwt., should be settled accordingly ; and, this done, the 
total value should be settled by the scales. 

The same plan of guessing is adopted in the sale of the fat 
stock. Here the butcher is sure to have the best of the 
bargain ; for every day his guesses are checked by reference 
to the scales, whilst the farmers are not, and what chance has 
the feeder, or his salesman, against such an advantage as 
this ? 

If the farmers of the country at large were to agree to declare 
that they would only buy and sell stock by weight, they 
would doubtless have ample power to enforce their decision. 

The same indifference to weights is manifested throughout, 
from the birth of the animal until it reaches the butcher. 
There is the clearest evidence of this in the discussions of the 
subject amongst farmers themselves, whether at home, at the 
market table, or at the clubs. If the custom of buying and 
selling stock by weight were once estal)lished, and it is so 
already to a great extent in America, the advantages to the 
farmer would be very great in various ways. He would not 
only be able to test the money result of his actual purchases 



36 IS IIIGTIER FARMING A REMEDY FOR LOWER PRICES ? 

and sales, but he would gain much experience, which would 
sharpen his judgment in the matter in the future. A greater 
advantage still would be, that he would be led to test his 
practice at every intermediate stage between the breeding or 
the buying and the selling. He would ascertain what were 
the best mixtures of food to use, according to the seasons and 
to the markets. He would determine — whether his animals 
were giving a proper rate of increase ; how much of different 
foods they required to produce it ; and he would carefully con- 
sider also the manure-value of the different foods. He 
would, in short, take the only means of insuring economy in 
his meat and manure manufacture. 

I was asked by your Secretary to address you this evening 
on the most economical method of producing meat. But I felt 
that, as the only M'^ay in which I could properly treat the 
subject would be by reference to M'eights, both of the food and 
of the animals, it would be, to many, neither interesting nor 
instructive ; it would, in fact, be like speaking in an unknown 
tongue. 

I will endeavour to illustrate my meaning by reference to 
a question which is much discussed at the present time — 
namely, the relative economy of producing young or old 
beef. 

If you look at Table VI., to which I have already called 
attention, you will find that in the top line of each of the four 
divisions, relating, respectively, to the four English breeds, 
you have an example of early maturity ; and the increase per 
day, and the calculated increase per 1000 lbs. live-weight per 
week, show, by comparison with the older animals, a more 
favourable rate of increase. To produce the same weight in 
two years as would otherwise be only attained in three years 
or more, is, of course, in many points of view, a great gain. 
As animals consume and expend a given amount of food 
daily, in proportion to their weight, merely in the maintenance 
of their existence, it is obvious that there is, so far, a consider- 
able saving of food if the same weight is attained in one-half 
or two-thirds the time. Other expenses will also be more or 
less reduced the shorter the time required to produce a given 
weight. It is true that, so long as an animal only feeds in a 
pasture in the summer, and only receives straw and roots in 



IS HIGHER FARMING A REMEDY FOR LOWER PRICES ? 37 

the winter, it lives at comparatively little cost, even if it 
make but slow progress, until the final period of fattening 
begins. Again, as the animal matures, it consumes less food 
for a given live-weight within a given time, a given weight of 
food gives rather less gross increase, but a given weight of 
gross increase represents more carcass, more solid matter, and 
less water. On the other hand, to obtain the more rapid 
increase, much more costly food must be given throughout the 
life of the animal. 

It is obvious that the two systems cannot be fairly com- 
pared, without taking into the calculation accurate data — as 
to the cost of attendance, the quality, quantity, and cost of 
the food consumed, the rate and value of the increase, and the 
value of the manure in the two cases. Yet in none of the 
discussions of the subject of which I have seen the records has 
there been any attempt to bring figures relating to these 
various points to bear upon the question. 

A few weeks ago there was an article in the North British 
Agriculturist headed " Young v. Old Beef." The Editor justly 
speaks of the excellence of the article, which he says was 
written by a well-known shorthorn breeder, who has oftener 
than once tasted the sweets of first honours at the Smithfield 
and other National Fat Shows. The writer gives the increase 
of weight of five cattle, of different ages, from March 1 to 
November 1. He says, that the animals were fed on the best 
he could procure for them, were all healthy during the experi- 
ment, and all figured as first prize takers at Christ uias Shows. 
But, he adds, the food was not weighed ; and further on he says, 
" this instance I have selected from many in my note books 
of live-weights of animals, and increase at different times ; 
and the proportionate increase of weight of different aged 
animals is fairly stated in the above examples." 

I gather from these statements that it is assumed by the 
writer that the rates of increase quoted are wliat may be ex- 
pected in the case of first-class shorthorns of the ages given, 
and fed upon the best food that can be procured for them. 
They were as follows ; and I have added a column showing 
the rate of increase per head per week, obtained by dividing 
the total increase by 35, the number of weeks from March 1 
to November 1 : — 



38 



IS HIGHER FARMING A REMEDY FOR LOWER PRICES ? 





Increase in Live-weight. 


From March 1 

to 
November 1. 


Per liead per 
week. 


1 Four-j'ear-old, ..... 
1 Three-year-old, ..... 
3 Two-year-olds (average per head), 


Cwts. qrs. lbs. 
12 
2 
i 24 


lbs. 

64 

131 



The actual weights of the animals are not given. But it 
may be assumed that tlie four-year-old ox would weigh nearer 
2000 lbs. than 1000 lbs. ; so that the rate of increase would 
l)robably not be more than 2-^ or 3 lbs. per 1000 lbs. live- 
weight per week, instead of 10 to 11 Ibw. according to our 
estimate. Nor would either of the younger animals show a 
sufficient rate of increase ; though the evidence is certainly 
very much in favour of the younger animals. The 4| lbs, 
increase per head per week of the four-year-old would be 
worth about two shillings ; and I leave you to judge what 
relation that sum would bear to the cost of feeding a four- 
year-old shorthorn on the best of everything ! These figures 
afford some idea of the cost of obtaining a prize, but they are 
of no value as examples of profitable feeding. 

It must be understood that in making these remarks I do 
nut wish to find any fault with the writer, who is obviously a 
man of much intelligence and experience. But I wish to enter 
a protest against the system of disregarding attention to the 
weights of animals, to their rates of increase, and to the quality, 
(quantity, and cost, of the food they consume to produce it, 
which alone could render it possible that such results could 
be f[uoted as examples of successful feeding. 

It is a somewhat humiliating admission to make, though so 
far it has proved to be too true, that the virgin soils and plains 
of the United States and Canada can produce, and send to this 
country, corn and meat cheaper than they can be jjroduced on 
our own soils at home, with all our boasted skill and science. 
The opinion expressed by some, that we shall again become 
exporters of corn, is altogether chimerical. But we have at 
any rate the cost of transit in favour of home production. 



IS HIGHER FARMING A REMEDY FOR LOWER PRICES ? 39 

This, tliough a less consideraljle protection in the case of grain, 
must always be a material item in the case of live animals, 
and of meat ; and the rearing and feeding of stock must always 
form an important branch of our farming. 

It is such a generally accepted opinion that the agriculture 
of Great Britain is superior to that of any other country, that 
you will perhaps be disposed to resent the allegation that 
there is very much in your practice which requires improve- 
ment. During the last thirty or forty years, our knowledge of 
the productive effects of different manures, of the food require- 
ments of different animals, of the increase they should yield, 
and of the value of the manure they produce, has made great 
progress. But comparatively few British farmers pay any 
attention to such subjects, or care to avail themselves of the 
information at their disposal. It is true that much of the 
existing data is not yet available in a form which would be 
easily intelligible to farmers generally, but this is because 
there is little demand for such knowledge ; and a comparison of 
the current agricultural literature of this country with that of 
America, and of some parts of the European continent, would 
show that the demand is greater in those countries. So long, 
indeed, as the old routine yielded fair profits, what need was 
there of any change ? But the present crisis, though I fear it 
may bring loss and suffering to many, will not be without 
some advantages, if it should lead to the conduct of agricul- 
tural operations on a basis more in accordance with both 
commercial and scientific principles. 



PRINTED AT THE " WARDER" OFFICE, BERWICK. 



IS HIGHER FARIING A REMEDY FOR 
LOWER PRICES P 



JOEING THE SLWSrANCE OF A LECTURE DELIVERED BEFORE 

TffE EAST BERWICKSHIRE ACRICULTUKAI ASSOCIATION, 

ON SA TL 'RD. 1 1 ', .1/. / ] ' j, jSjg. 



^ BY 

JOHN BEXNET LAAVES, LL.D., E.U.S., kQ., 

UK );OTHAM.sTlill, lIKltTS. 



l]EUAVI('lv-l' IM )X-T\V KKl) : 

PUBIJSIIEJ) J'.V (!. MACASlvlE, •' \VA1!J)ER" OKI' ICE. 

1879. 






LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



003 138 681 





